Summary of 8.4

Concept 8.4 - Photosynthesis has a global impact.

Key Terms:

carbon cycle- process by which carbon moves from inorganic to organic compounds and back

greenhouse effect- process by which atmospheric gases trap heat close to Earth's surface and prevent it from escaping into space

Summary:

* after the process of photosynthesis, the product will be inorganic carbon dioxide to organic compounds
* photosynthetic organisms make about 160 billion metric tons of organic material per year which is about equal to 80 trillion copies of this book
* key element for carbon cycle - carbon dioxide
* plants use carbon dioxide to make sugars during the photosynthesis
* if there don't have enough carbon dioxide, the earth will be a lot warmer

Concept Check:

1. Give an example of carbon moving from an inorganic compound to an organic compound in the carbon cycle. Give an example of carbon moving from an organic to an inorganic compound.Grass are carbon moving from an inorganic compound to an organic compound and buffaloes are cabon moving from an organic to an inorganic compound.

2. How is carbon dioxide important to Earth's climate?
If there have not enough carbon dioxide to Earth's climate, the temperature will go higher by the sun's heat which won't bounce back to the space really often.

Summary of 8.3

Concept 8.3 - The Calvin cycle makes sugar from carbon dioxide.

Key Terms:
(None)

Summary:
Calvin cycle
* sugar factory in chroloplast
* have similar process with Kereb's cycle in the cellular respiration
* starting material that gets regenerated is a compound called RuBP, a sugar with five carbons.
* inputs: carbon dioxide from the air and the ATP and NADPH produced by the light reactions
* outputs: energy-rich sugar molecule
Photosynthesis
* overal equestion: 6CO2 + 6H2O --- C6H12O6 + 6O2
* light reaction in thylakoid membranes change those energy into chemical energy of ATP and NADPH (water -- release the product oxygen)
* change carbon dioxide into sugars during the Calvin cycle by using ATP and NADPH

Concept Check:
1. What are the inputs and outputs of the Calvin cycle?
inputs: carbon dioxide from the air and the ATP and NADPH produced by the light reactions; outputs: energy-rich sugar molecule

2. Which stage of photosynthesis uses each reactant from the overall photosynthesis equation? Which stage generates each product from the overall photosynthesis equation?
the light energy process, and the calvin cycle

3. Why is the Calvin cycle called a cycle?
because its' process is similar to the Kereb's cycle which accurs in the cellular respiration which the stages generates and work differently

4. What molecule is the direct product of photosynthesis? How is that molecule then used by plant cells?
C6H12O6 + 6O2, to use them as food, also store them and use them when they need to use their energy for certain times

summary of 8.2

Concept 8.2 - The light reactions convert light energy to chemical energy.





Key Terms:

wavelength- between adjacent waves

electromagnetic spectrum- range of types of electromagnetic energy from gamma waves to radio waves

pigment- chemical compound that determines a substance's color

paper chromatography- laboratory technique used to observe the different pigments in a material

photosystem- cluster of chlorophyll and other molecules in a thylakoid



Summary:

* we can know the wavelength by the electromagnetic spectrum

- in this chart, we can also know the visible lights in the graph

* when the light shine at the pigment, it can be absorbed, transmitted, or reflected. (leaves bounce back (reflect) those lights so they look green)

* thylakoid membrane absorb light energy and one of the pigment gains electron energy

*The light reactions convert light energy to the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH.

Concept Check:

1. Explain why a leaf appears green.


They reflect the outside their organelles so they appears green.




2. Describe what happens when a molecule of chlorophyll a absorbs light.
One of the pigments change it into electron energys




3. Besides oxygen, what two molecules are produced by the light reactions?
Chemical energy of ATP and NADPH.




4. Where in the chloroplast do the light reactions take place?
In the thylakoid membrane

summary of 8.1

Concept 8.1 - Photosynthesis uses light energy to make food







Key Terms:



chloroplast- organelle found in some plant ceels and certain unicellular organisms where photosynthesis takes place



chlorophyll- pigment that gives a chloroplast its green color; uses light energy to split water molecules during photosynthesis



stroma- thick fluid contained in the inner membrane of a chloroplast



thylakoid- disk-shaped sac in the stroma of a chloroplast; site of the light reactions of photosynthesis



light reaction- chemical reactions that convert the sun's energy to chemical energy; take place in the membranes of thylakoids in the chloroplast



Calvin cycle- cycle in plants that makes sugar from carbon dioxide, H+ ions, and high-energy electrons carried by NADPH







Summary:

Chloroplast:

* photosynthesis takes place in chloroplast
* contain chemical compound called chlorophylls which make these in to green color.
* leaves contain most of the chloroplast in entire plant
* has an inner and outer membrane just like mitochondrion
* in the stoma, there have a lot of thylakoids which are all enclosed by a membrane

Photosynthesis:

* formula - 6CO2 + 6H2O →→→ C6H12O6 + 6O2

- 6 Carbon Dioxide + 6 Water →→→ Glucose + Oxygen
* During this process, choroloplast must require to have light energy and have light reactions so this process will be working
* light reaction comes from the light of the sun
* Calvin cycle makes sugars from the atoms in carbon dioxide plus the hydrogen ions and the high-energy electrons carried by NADPH.

Concept Check 8.1:



1. Draw and label a simple diagram of a chloroplast that includes the following structures: outer and inner membranes, stroma, thylakoids.







2. What are the reactants for photosynthesis? What are the products?
Reactants: 6sCarbon Dioxide and 6 Water
Products: Glucose and 6 Oxygen





3. Name the two main stages of photosynthesis. How are the two stages related?
Two main stages are the light reaction and the Calvin cycle. These two stages are related by the molecules they use which are NADPH and some ATP to produce molecules that they need.

Oct 7th, 20008 Homework

organelle - each part of a cell with a specific job to do (meaning "mini-organ")


plasma membrane - both kinds of cells have a thin outer covering


nucleus - houses the cell's genetic material in the form of DNA



cytoplasm - the entire region of the cell between the nucleus and the plasma membrane


cell wall - protects the plant cell and maintains its shape


prokaryotic cell - lacks a nuclus and most other organelles


eukaryotic cell - has a nuclus surrounded by its own membrane, and has other internal organelles bounded by membranes


diffusion - the net movement of the particles of a substance from where they are more concentrated to where they are less concentrated


equilibrium - something in balance


selectively permeable membrane - allows some substances to cross the membrane more easily than others and blocks the passage of some substances altogether

Chapter 5 Review Assessment

Reviewing Concepts Multiple Choice: Choose the letter of the best answer.

1. Which of the following is not an organic molecule? answer: c.water

a. cellulose

b. sucrose

c. water

d. testosterone

2. Which of the following terms includes all the other terms on this list? answer: b.carbohydrate

a. polysaccharide

b. carbohydrate

c. monosaccharide

d. glycogen

3. Which term is most appropriate to describe a molecule that dissolves easily in water? answer: c. hydrophilic

a. hydrocarbon

b. hydrophobic

c. hydrophilic

d. organic

4. Cholesterol is an example of what kind of molecule? answer: b. lipid

a. protein

b. lipid

c. amino acid

d. carbohydrate

5. The 20 amino acids vary only in their answer: c. amino groups

a. carboxyl groups.

b. side groups.

c. amino groups.

d. lipid groups.

6. A specific reactant an enzyme acts upon is called the answer: d. substrate

a. catalyst.

b. sucrose.

c. active site.

d. substrate.

7. An enzyme does which of the following? answer: b. lowers the activation energy of a reaction

a. adds heat to a reaction, speeding it up

b. lowers the activation energy of a reaction

c. cools a reaction, slowing it down

d. raises the activation energy of a reaction

Short Answer

8. Besides satisfying your hunger, why else might you consume a big bowl of pasta the night before a race?

Not enough having carbons in body or proteins and fats that you need for each day.

9. How are glucose, sucrose, and starch related?

They are all in polysaccharides and they have different functions.

10. What are steroids? Describe two functions they have in cells.

Steroids are lipid molecule with four fused carbon rings. They work at both male's and female's sex hormone, and testosterone.

11. How are polypeptides related to proteins?

Because each links in the proteins are made out of several polypeptides formed together.

12. How does denaturation affect the ability of a protein to function?

Denaturation unfavorable changes in temperature, pH, or some other quality of the enviornment can cause a protein to unravel and lose its normal shape.

Applying Concepts Analyzing Information

14. Analyzing Diagrams The reaction below shows two amino acids joining together.

a. One product of this reaction is represented by a question mark. Which molecule is it?

b. What is this kind of reaction called? Explain.

c. If an amino acid were added to this chain, at what two places could it attach?

15. Analyzing Graphs Use the graph to answer the questions below.

a. At which temperature does enzyme A perform best? Enzyme B?

b. Knowing that one of these enzymes is found in humans and the other in thermophilic (heat-loving) bacteria, hypothesize which enzyme came from which organism.

c. Propose a hypothesis that explains why the rate of the reaction catalyzed by enzyme A slows down at temperatures above 40°C.

Summary of 5.5

CONCEPT 5.5: Enzymes are proteins that speed up specific reactions in cells.


Key Terms:

activation energy -- minimum amount of energy required to trigger a chemical reaction
catalyst -- compounds that speed up chemical reactions
enzyme -- the main catalysts of chemical reactions in organisms are specialized proteins
substrate -- a specific reactant acted upon by an enzyme
active site -- the substrate of its into a particular region of the enzyme


Summary:

Enzymes and Activation Energy
* to start a chemical reaction
- need to weaken chemical bonds in the reactant molecules first
--requires molecules absorb energy
--- "start-up" energy for chemical reaction - activation energy
* heat up the mixture of molecules - providing activation energy
- hotter molecules may collide with enough energy to weaken bonds
- cooler molecules collide with less energy
* heating up a cell would cause many unnecessary reactions to occur at once
- cellular reactions depend of the assistance of catalysts
-- main catalysts of chemical reactions in organisms are enzymes
* enzymes doesn't supply activation energy to the reacting molecules
- lowers the energy requirement barrier so that the reaction can proceed at normal cell temperatures
* figure 5-15: enzyme lowers the wall so that frogs have enough energy to reach the other side.


Concept:

1. Explain the role of activation energy in a reaction. How does an enzyme affect activation energy?
Activation energy is a "start-up" energy for starting a chemical reaction. Enzymes affect on activation energy when a cell got heat up and cause many unnecessary reactions to occur at once, including reactions that destroy the cell's delicate structures.


2. Describe how a substrate interacts with an enzyme.
The fit between substrate and enzyme is not rigid. When the substrate enter the enzyme, active site changes shape sligthly which makes fitting substrate more fitly.

Summary of 5.4

CONCEPT 5.4: Proteins perform most functions in cells.


Key Terms:

protein -- a polymer constructed from a set of just 20 kinds of monomers called amino acids
amino acid -- monomer that makes up proteins; contains carboxy and amino functional groups
polypeptide -- cell create proteins by linking amino acids together into a chain
denaturation -- loss of normal shape of a protein due to heat or other factor


Notes:

The Functions of Proteins
* proteins are responsible for almost all of the day-to-day functioning of organisms
* proteins with less-visible functions defend the body from harmful small molecules, and other that act as signals, conveying messages from one cell to another


Amino Acids
* three of the central carbon's partners are the same in all amino acids
* the side group is responsible for each amino acid
- ex. side group of the amino acid - leucine = hydrocarbon

Building a Protein
* need a lot of amino acids to build up a protein


Protein Shape
* An unfavorable change in temperature, pH, or some other quality of the environment can cause a protein to unravel and lose its normal shape (denaturation)



Concept Check 5.4

1. Give at least two examples of proteins you can "see" in the world around you. What are their functions?
animals, and plants; proteins are responsible during everyday functioning organisms.

2. Relate amino acids, polypeptides, and proteins.
They are all made out of a lot of molecules, and they all support the living things tfor do their works.


3. Explain how heat can destroy a protein.



4. Which part of an anmino acid's structure are the same in all amino acids? Which part is uniques?

Summary of 5.3

CONCEPT 5.3: Lipids include fats and steroids


Key Terms:


lipid -- oil's inability to mix with water is typical of the class of water avoiding compounds
hydrophobic -- water-avoiding molecules

saturated fat -- fat in which all three fatty acid chains contain the maximum possible number of hydrogen atoms

unsaturated fats -- contain less than the maximum number of hydrogen atoms in one or more of it's fatty acid chains because some of it's carbon atoms are double-bonded to each other

steroid -- a lipid molecule in which the carbon skeleton forms four fused rings

cholesterol -- essential molecule found in the membranes that surround your cells


Notes:

Characteristics of Lipids


* hydrophobic - "water-fearing"

-ex. lipids act as a boundary that surrounds and contains the aqueous (watery) contents of your cells.
* other types of lipid molecules circulate in your body as chemical signals to cells



Fats

* some fats are solid at room temperature and some are liquids at room temperature (oil)
- liquids - saturated fat
- solids - unsaturated fat
* saturated fats may be unhealthy


Concept Check 5.3
1. What property do lipids share?


2. What are the parts of a fat molecule?




3. Describe two ways that steroids differ from fats.
Steroids are classified as lipids because they are hydrophobic, and some steroids circulate in your body as chemical signals.

4.What does the term unsaturated fat on a food label mean?
Contains less than the maximum number of hydrogen atoms in one or more of its fatty acid chains because some of its carbon atoms are double-bonded to each other.

Summary of 5.1

Concept 5.1: Carbon is the main ingredient of organic molecules.

Key Terms:
organic molecule -- carbon-based molecule

inorganic molecule -- non-carbon-based molecules
hydrocarbon -- organic molecule composed of only carbon and hydrogen atoms
functional group -- a group of atoms within a molecule that interacts in predictable ways with other molecules.

hydrophilic -- attracts water molecules

monomer -- small molecular unit that is the building black of a larger molecule

polymer -- cells link monomers together into long chairs.

Notes:

Carbon Skeletons and Functional Groups
* carbon atoms are so common in living things
-carbon has 4 electrons

-can hold 4 bonds with other atoms
-other atoms can branch off into four directions
* carbon can form bonds with one or more other carbon atoms endlessly

-carbon-based molecules (organic molecules)
-non-carbon-based molecules (inorganic molecules)

-ex. water (H2O), oxygen (O2), and ammonia(NH3)

* can bond with carbon atoms, and other elements

-ex. composed of only carbon and hydrogen (hydrocarbons)
* most organic molecules that contain hydroxyl groups are hydrophilic

-"water-loving"

Monomers and Polymers
* biomolecules maybe composed of hundreds or even millions of atoms

-molecular units: monomers

-many monomers together; form into long chain: polymers

* every living cells has thousands of different kinds of polymers

-vary from cell to cell within an organism

-all of these polymers are formed by fewer than 50 kinds of monomers

* life's large molecules are classifies into four main categories: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

Building and Breaking Polymers

* when monomer is added to a chain, a water molecule is released (dehydration reaction)

-de:removing hydro: water

* organisms build and break polymers down

-ex.many of the molecules in your food are polymers

-we need to break down large molecules into small pieces

* cells break bonds between monomers by adding water to them, the reverse of dehydration (hydrolysis reaction)

-hydro-: water -lysis: break down

Concept Check 5.1

1. Draw a molecule that has a three carbon skeleton and a hydroxyl group on the middle carbon. (Hint: the molecule's formula is C3H8O).

2. Explain the connection between monomers and polymers.
Connection between monomoers and polymers are monomers are molecules that are large molecules built from many similar, smaller molecular units; and polymers are a long chain which is made out of many monomers.

3. What molecule is released during construction of a polymer? What is this reaction called?

Water is released during constrution of a polymer, and this reaction is called dehydration reaction.

4. Draw at least three ways in which five carbon atoms could be joined to make different carbon skeletons.

Summary of 5.2

CONCEPT 5.2: Carbohydrates provide fuel and building materials.

Key Terms:

carbohydrate -- organic compound made up of sugar molecules

monosaccharide -- simple sugars contain just one sugar unit

disaccharide -- sugar with two monosaccharides

polysaccharide -- complex carbohydrates

starch -- polysaccharide found in plant cells that consists entirely of gluecose monomers

glycogen -- store excess sugar in the form of a polysaccharide

cellulose -- polysaccharide consisting of gluecose monomers that reinforces plant-cell walls

Notes:

Sugars

* carbohydrate - made up of sugar molecules

* sugars contain carbon, hydrogen, annd oxygen

-formula: CH2O

-most found in nature: carbon skeletons (have a ring shape)

Monosaccharides

* monosaccharides

-ex. glucose, fructose, and galactose

--honey contains both glucose and fructose

* glucose

-straight-chain form

-ring-shaped form

* sugar molecules (particularly glucose)are the main fuel supply for cellular work

*cells use carbon skeletons of monosaccharides as raw material for manufacturing other kinds of organic molecules

Disaccharides

* disaccharide -- "double sugar" from two monosaccharides

-the most common one is sucrose

--sucrose is a major carbohydrate in plant sap, and it nourishes all the parts of the plant

---ex.maple trees (maple syrup)

* body can store glucose in larger molecules for later use

Polysaccharides

* polysaccharides - complex carbon hydrates

-ex. starch - found in plant cells that consists entirely of glucose monomers

--ex. for starch: potatoes, rice, and corn

* plant and animal cells need sugar for energy to work

* glycon is a chain of many glucose monomers

* cellulose protect cells and stiffen the plant, preventing it from flopping over

Concept Check 5.2

1. Explain the difference between a monosaccharide and a disaccharide. Give an example of each.

Monosaccharides are simple sugars contain just one sugar unit, and the examples for this are glucose, fructose, and galactose; however, disaccharide is formed by two sugar or monosaccharides, and the examples for this is the maple tree.

2. Compare and contrast starch, glycogen, and cellulose.
Starch, glycogen, and cellulose are all found in polysaccharide. Starch is foundin plant cells that consists entirely of glucose monomers. Glycogen is a chain of many glucose monomers (in turkeys and humans). Cellulose protect cells and stiffen the plant, preventing it from flopping over.

3. How do animals store excess glucose molecules?

Tony Koo's lifetime.

Hellow, I'm Tony (JungHyun) Koo. I am Korean and I was born in Korea. I was borned in August 6th, 1994. I am now in Guangzhou, China and I attend to school called AISG. This is fifth year in Guangzhou, and third year in AISG. I have a lot of lovely friends in AISG, and I usually hang out with them during the weekend. My hobbie is playing drum and computer games. I can play drum a little bit but I really love it. I usually play computer games called: "Warcraft, and DOTA"; however, I am not really good (but I can bit all of my friends lolz). I love to listen to music, especially rock (sometimes heavy metal). My favorite band is "muse", and I really want to have a band like them. I have two bands which are called "PoM2" and "spirit breaker"(not sure yet).But I think the PoM2 is better than spirit breaker... I am christion, and I love my God a lot. Drum is part of my life which is very important to me. I love my life now and I want to stay with my friends forever.